Feeding the Beast

I am fascinated by yeast, especially the species known as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. S. cerevisiae is responsible for alcoholic fermentation and baking. These single-celled microorganisms convert carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The happy outcome of the process is wine or beer or a delicious slice of sourdough.

Wine yeast

Experienced and skilled winemakers in established wine countries often use native yeasts for alcoholic fermentation because the right type of yeasts have been cultivated over centuries and thrive in the environment. Hobby winemakers, like myself, who purchase grapes from fairly young vineyards, are better off using commercially produced wine yeast. This is sold dry in packets the same way you get bread yeast or in bricks for larger quantities.

But before we add wine yeast to crushed grapes (also known as the must), we have to first kill off any existing wild yeasts and microorganisms by adding sulfite. If not, these can contribute to off flavors and spoilage during the fermentation process. Two days after adding sulfite, wine yeast is then introduced to the must.

A key job of the winemaker then is to nourish the yeast so that it can complete alcoholic fermentation. Here are two things I've learned in making the 2017 vintage.

Yeast Gets Hungry  

Very much like baking sourdough, you first make a starter by activating the dry yeast in warm water that is supplemented with some nutrients. (I used Go-Ferm.) Then you feed it with sugar; in this case, a 1:1 ratio of must and water. Temperature control is important as the yeast is quite thermosensitive.

Activating yeast

Several hours later, the yeast would feast on the sugar and start to multiply. A healthy starter expands in size and bubbles happily. However, if the yeast is starving, it tells you in the most dramatic pitiful way, which was what happened to me.

Healthy starter

Starving yeast

Thankfully the fix was simple enough. I just had to add more juice to the starter, and within a half-hour, the starter came back to life. But just in case, it is good to have spare yeast and nutrients around.  

Slowly acclimatize the starter by putting the bowl on the must in the primary fermentor for a few hours before pouring it in. Soon, the primary fermentor should feel really warm, and the must should be bubbling away. If you are really quiet, you could almost hear your yeast having a blast with all the sugars in the juice. 

Sugar Alone Ain't Enough

While sugar may be delicious, it alone can't keep the yeast healthy. Other nutrients are also needed, and an important one is nitrogen. Unfortunately, Washington grapes are notorious for having a very low nitrogen level, which could inhibit yeast activity and cause a stuck fermentation. 

We did an additional measurement on the must this year, known as the Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen (YAN). True enough, our YAN reading was at 33.7 mg N/l, a far cry from the targeted 250 mg N/l. Under the guidance of more experienced winemakers, I measured the amount of nutrients that I needed to add to the must. 

Hydrometer records 0 Brix

I went with Fermaid K, which consists of a complex formulation of nitrogen, vitamins, and minerals. In addition, I threw in a small dose of diammonium phosphate (DAP) for extra nitrogen. The nutrients and supplements gave the yeast such a nice boost in the fermentation process that I reduced the second dose and didn't even bother with a third dose.

By the tenth day after harvest, the juice was fermented to dryness. Alcoholic fermentation was completed. The must was no more, and I officially had wine. 

The next step was to start malolactic fermentation on the wine, and then it was time to press. More to come on that!

The Mighty Midnight Crushers

It was dark, but thankfully the rain had stopped. Over a dozen hobby winemakers were waiting in the cold for the grapes. This year, it was particularly late because of a shortage of pickers, and we were several hours behind schedule.

Around 8pm, the truck rolled into the processing site. We cheered! Let the crush begin.

The Crush

The gang got to work immediately, trying to make up for lost time. We unloaded the grapes and carefully allocated about 4,000 lbs of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc into 50-lb totes. Organizing the allotment of grapes was challenging as lighting was inadequate and patience ran thin.

Then we ran into our first glitch - 150 lbs of Cab Sauv were missing.

Stephanie shoveling grapes

Chaos ensued. Not being able to account for the missing Cab Sauv, we decided that we could make up for the difference if we each gave up 4% of our grapes. Crisis averted. No one was going home without grapes.

An hour later, 100 lbs of grapes were found in a dark corner. A few of us tasted the grapes - definitely Cab Franc. How? Too tired to solve the mystery, we decided to re-distribute the grapes to those who were previously "taxed" 4% of the Cab Sauv. All's well that ends well.

Next, the second glitch at around 10pm - power outage.

With both crusher-destemmers running simultaneously, we must have tripped the circuit. We were crushing at a storage facility and had no access to the circuit breaker during these late hours. Our options were not looking good, and they probably included fighting raccoons over the grapes.

Thankfully, one of the winemakers lived close enough and was able to drag out his generator. Within an hour, we were back in business, crushing and de-stemming with all our might. The team remained in good spirits and were grateful that we were able to overcome each challenge. By the time we were done with the crush and clean-up, it was close to midnight.

Now, let me introduce you to our little co-op: The Mighty Midnight Crushers

The Genesis

We started planning in February. Four new hobby winemakers decided to join me to make our 2017 vintage. With only one vintage under my belt, I am hardly experienced. But thankfully, we have resources in the form of books, classes, more experienced winemakers, and access to really good grapes in Washington. More importantly, we are a group with the best attitude and eagerness to work together.

Grapes on staked vines

A month later, we placed an order for Red Mountain Cab Sauv from Artz Vineyards.

The Grapes

The first vintage I made was Yakima Valley Syrah, a forgiving varietal that is lovely even without oak. The Syrah was transformed with minimal intervention into a tasty fruit-forward wine within a year.

Cab Sauv however is a very different variety. Known for its small berry size and thick skin, Cab Sauv is favored for its tannins, which will need to be softened with oak. So I bought the smallest new French oak barrel I could find.



By end of August, the vineyards started sending out reports on the grapes. Forecasted harvest dates for different grape varieties were provided with varying degrees of accuracy, starting with white grapes followed by black and finishing with Cab Sauv and Cab Franc. The forecasted date for our Cab Sauv then was September 21.

The following month, the vineyards started running sugar (Brix) and acidity (pH and TA) tests on grape samples to determine ripeness. Still it was impossible to predict and plan our lives around the harvest date. September came and left, and Mother Nature continued to keep us guessing.

The Harvest

Our harvest date was finally set on Oct 17. We had less than a week to get ready. Two of our Mighty Midnight Crushers, Frank and Cindie, volunteered to drive to the Red Mountain AVA to collect our grapes as well as those ordered by other hobby winemakers.

Red Mountain AVA

How long the harvest may take typically depends on the weather and the availability of the pickers. Although the weather was lovely, there was a shortage of migrant workers this year. The vineyards owner herself joined her four workers to pick about 4,000 lbs of grapes that day.

It was late in the afternoon when the grapes were finally loaded onto the truck. Frank and Cindie had already been at the vineyards since that morning. They were glad to be on their way back to Western Washington. It was getting dark, and the winds were picking up. With a heavy load behind them, the drive navigating through the pass would take over three hours. They knew that they would be welcomed by over a dozen grateful winemakers waiting for the grapes in the cold. It would be dark, but hopefully the rain would have stopped.

A Sicilian Woman and Her Wine

It is the first weekend of fall, a season to begin drinking red wine again.

Looking through my cellar, I picked the 2013 Occhipinti Nero d'Avola Sicilia Siccagno, a lively wine made by a bold young Sicilian lady, Arianna Occhipinti. What a great way to pay tribute to Sicily and female winemakers!

Sicily and Nero d'Avola

Sicily

Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, located in the south of the Italian boot-shaped peninsula, as if it is being kicked like a triangular soccer ball. For many years, Sicily's claim to fame, for me, consisted of mafia and Rachael Ray's maternal grandfather.

Although known for Marsala, Sicilian dry wines have more recently made inroads into Italian restaurants and grocery stores in the United States partly because of the friendlier price point. The most famous grape in Sicily is Nero d'Avola, dark-skinned (hence nero) and high in acidity. It is also the main grape in the only DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) in Sicily, Cerasuolo di Vittoria. DOCG is the highest classification of Italian wines, ensuring that the winemaking process follows stringent rules and meets the quality for that classification.

Arianna Occhipinti

Arianna is the niece of Giusto Occhipinti, co-founder of the famed winery, COS. Since her teens, she has been working in a winery. In 2004, at the age of 21, Arianna ventured out to make her first commercial vintage with a single cask. Today, she has thirteen vintages, six wines, and a grappa under her belt. She even produced a Cerasuolo di Vittoria named Grotte Alte, which is 50% Nero d'Avola and 50% Frappato, a fruit-forward blending grape.

Arianna takes a minimalist approach to winemaking, preferring native yeasts and letting the grapes themselves guide the vinification process. While striving to keep her wines as natural as possible, Arianna has also become more comfortable with incorporating sulphite in the fermentation process. This reduces the problem of volatile acids and off flavors that challenged her earlier vintages.

2013 Occhipinti Nero d'Avola Sicilia Siccagno

2013 Occhipinti Nero d'Avola Sicilia Siccagno is classified as an IGT (Indicazione Geografica Tipica), loosely translated as the wine that is typical of the particular geographical region. IGT is the second level of the four-level classification of Italian wines. (DOCG being the top.) IGT wines are great for everyday drinking and are a level higher than table wine (VdT or Vino da Tavola). Here are my observations:

Day 1
Deep purple, the wine was jammy with lively acidity. It seemed to be medium-bodied, but the high acidity might have affected that perception. It was reminiscent of a very young Burgundy, not quite ready to enjoy fully and does not yet exhibit much complexity.

Day 2 
Transformation seemed to have taken place. Acidity seemed to have mellowed out and was more integrated with the wine. The wine was more balanced and opulent with flavors of plum. It was much more enjoyable!

My Verdict: I don't usually like high acidity in my red wine, and I need more dimensions (like tannins, structure) to balance it out. Thankfully, the wine evolved in that direction by the second day. However, I can see this as a great companion to rich dishes, like beef stew. Like many old world wines, the Siccagno is better as a food wine rather than a sipping wine.

Price: ~$40

My Wine is Too Oaky!

Oak in wine is like salt in food. It may enhance the flavor. But if you can taste it, you probably have too much of it. - A paraphrased but insightful observation of my wine class instructor.

My Oak and I

Oak in wine is indeed a controversial topic. When wine is in contact with oak, aromatic compounds from the oak are introduced to the wine. While there is no accounting for taste, wine geeks often argue about whether a wine is overoaked. That said, many of us are glad that the days of oaky California Chardonnay are behind us.

While there are different types of oak used for barrels (and in fact different types of wood), the two best known are French oak and American oak. Generally speaking, French oak tends to add subtle spiciness and silkiness to the wine while American oak tends to impart a stronger and sweeter flavor that is reminiscent of vanilla.

There are of course other factors that contribute to the influence of oak to the wine. For instance:

• Toast level - higher toast leads to stronger flavor
• Coarseness of grain - open-grain barrel releases aromatics sooner, and tight-grain releases aromatics later
• Barrel size - higher ratio of oak surface area to volume of wine results in more contact
• Time in barrel - more time in the barrel leads to extended contact
• New vs neutral barrels - newer barrels have more aromatic compounds

Wine aging in new French oak barrels in Burgundy

However, an often overlooked benefit of oak barrels is that they introduce a small amount of oxygen to the wine (known as micro-oxygenation) during maturation. Oxygen is critical for the polymerization of phenolic compounds to stabilize the color and improve the quality of the wine. Recent research even suggests that fermenting wine in oak barrels leads to a better quality wine, but that requires another level of maintenance for the wineries.

Now back to the question, when is a wine too oaky? It just depends on how much you like the taste of oak in your wine.

Personally, I find the sweet vanilla flavor imparted by American oak detracts from my enjoyment. I tend to like my red wine silky with nuanced spices and leather notes. I also like older well-made reds and would forgo fruitiness for complexity. In fact, my favorite red wines are often aged in Slavonian oak, known for its tight grain as well as lower aromatics and tannins level. Any guess as to the wine?

My Verdict: If you are like me, you probably prefer the silky soft tannins that result from barrel aging but could go light on the aromatics. Then, depending on the grape varietals, keep an eye out for wine made in French oak (or even Slavonian oak). However, if you like stronger flavors, particularly of vanilla, then maybe American oak is more to your liking. Check out the technical sheet of your favorite wine and see what oak is used and for how long. There's always much to learn!

Cork Taint in a Screwcap?

In my last post, I wrote about the difference between corks and screwcaps, about how the latter has significantly circumvented the problem of cork taint. Then the unexpected happened to me - I got a screwcapped wine that was corked!

One of these was corked

It was a gorgeous summer afternoon in Portland, and I was thrilled to find a new wine bar and bottle shop to try. We sat down at the patio, and I ordered a flight of three mid-range Oregon Pinot Noirs. I swirled the glass of the first wine, took a whiff, and immediately got that faint but unmistaken smell of wet cardboard. I took a sip, which confirmed that off-putting taste devoid of fruit and flavor. I tasted the other two glasses, and they were fine.

I took the corked wine back to the shop and waited patiently for the shopkeeper to finish his conversation with another customer. Then I told him discreetly that the wine was corked. He took it back and came out to the patio with a new bottle and a new glass. He twisted the screwcap off the bottle to pour me a new glass and said, "That wine was fine, but here's one from a newly opened bottle."

Now, I have up to now experienced only half a dozen corked bottles. While it was not a common occurrence to get a corked wine these days, the last three happened in the past year so I am unfortunately quite familiar with the smell and taste of a corked wine; the earlier two being a Brunello and a California Super Tuscan-style red. I have even tried the Saran wrap trick to remove the taint, which, I am sad to report, does not work.

I digress. Now how does a screwcapped wine get corked?

TCA

I mentioned in my last post that the main cause of cork taint is TCA (2,4,6-trichloroanisole), a compound that leads to a musty fungal or wet cardboard aroma.  TCA belongs to a family of volatile compounds called haloanisoles, that cause moldy aroma. There are other compounds (TBA, TeCA, and PCA) that may be responsible for the taint.

Haloanisoles may be transferred to the wine from contaminated materials in the winemaking facility, such as tank coatings, hoses, barrels, and oak chips. It can also be transferred to the polyethylene film, which is commonly used as a liner for screwcaps. So while opting for a screwcap over cork will significantly reduce the chance of cork taint, it does not eliminate it. In my limited sample size, it is one to five.

Here's another interesting factoid - the sensory thresholds of different tasters for haloanisoles may vary as well. So one taster can be highly sensitive to it while another may not find it quite as objectionable. A well-known sommelier once discovered that a rare and expensive bottle ordered at his restaurant was corked. Despite his offer and attempt to replace it with a different bottle, the diners claimed that not only was the wine fine, but it was delicious. At which point, he had to back off against his professional judgement.

My Verdict: Regardless of the closure used, if you believe that your wine is corked, trust your taste and take the wine back. Even if the wine merchant disagrees with you, he or she will likely still replace your wine. It is better than to be stuck with an off-putting wine.

Corks or Screwcaps?

Since the sudden rise of cork taint in the 1960s, the wine industry has been exploded with alternative closures to seal bottled wine. The main cause of cork taint is the presence of a compound known as TCA (2,4,6-trichloroanisole) that leads to a musty fungal or wet cardboard aroma in the wine. While it is not harmful to the consumers, it definitely takes away the pleasure of enjoying a nice glass of wine.

Among the alternative closures with their corresponding pros and cons, the screwcaps in particular have gained quite a bit of traction in the new world, especially in Australia and New Zealand. While I am partial to natural corks for my cellar-worthy wines, summer calls for easy drinking. And who wants to fuss with a corkscrew at a picnic when you can twist the cap off a bottle of fresh Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc and seal it shut again?

Rulo Winery in Walla Walla only use screwcaps 

While screwcaps remain a favored alternative, one common complaint is that it does too good a job of keeping oxygen out and does not allow the wine in the bottle to breathe and mature. This can sometimes lead to "reductive taint" or the smell of rotten egg in the wine. However, winemakers are getting good at correcting the problem by adjusting the amount of sulphur dioxide added to the bottle prior to closure. (Yes, sulphur dioxide is often added during bottling to stabilize the wine, but that is a topic for another day.)

For cellar-worthy wines, a little oxygen over a period of time helps the wines develop and mature in the bottle. Contrary to popular belief, natural corks do not allow outside oxygen to enter sealed bottles. But because corks are made up of mostly hollow cells, oxygen from the corks themselves is gently and gradually released into the bottles to further age the wine.

As one might expect, the technology of screwcaps has progressed to offer a small amount of oxygen leakage from the cap into the wine, mimicking the same function in a cork. So we may see more and more cellar-worthy wines using screwcaps in the future. In fact, there are some wineries who have gone completely screwcaps for all their wines, including those that you can lay down to age. Rulo Winery from Walla Walla is one such winery.

With a steeper competition for closures, cork producers have also come up with more stringent procedures to reduce the incidences of TCA, like ensuring proper harvesting and treatment of cork. In addition, technical corks (which are essentially cork-based closures) are often treated to prevent TCA and available as less expensive options. In fact, I use technical corks for my homemade wine.

A mix of natural and technical corks

My Verdict: Just as there is a wine for every occasion, there is a closure that fits every type of wine. My rule of thumb is that if you drink your wine young, a screwcap is not necessarily a bad thing. But I would probably pause if I see a screwcapped bottle of Barolo or Burgundy. However, if you trust a particular winemaker, then it may be worthwhile to keep an open mind about his or her choice of closures.

Bonjour, Mon Rosé!

Rosé is a wine of celebration!

Provençal Rosé with fresh spring salad

After a long dreary winter, it is always a joy to welcome sunshine and warmth with a bottle of Rosé. I especially love a dry Provençal or Provence-style Rosé, slightly chilled and shared with friends on the patio, or on the beach. Being light and fruity in palate, Rosés go well with most summer fare - cantalope slices wrapped with prosciutto, spring mix salad with a light mustard vinaigrette, and cheeses. Or if you want to be totally Provençal, pair it with your favorite vegetables and shellfish dipped in rich garlicky aioli.

Rosé is a French term for pink wine, that is well beloved in the States. In Italy, it is called Rosato; and in Spain, it is called Rosado. In a London bistro, I would order a bottle of Blush.

Contrary to some belief, Rosé is not made by blending white and red wines, except in the case of a pink Champagne. But a still pink wine is made using black grapes (or grapes that typically produce red wine) with a much shorter skin contact than one would for making red wine. That way, it significantly reduces the extraction of anthocyanins, or color pigments from the skin, rendering it pink.

To be technical, there are different ways to make Rosés, and they are rather nuanced.

Provence-Style Rosé from Brady Cellars

• Short Maceration - This is the way to make Rosés with the sole goal of making Rosés, instead of a by-product. In this case, the winemaker crushes the black grapes and macerates them for a period of time. When the desired level of color and flavor is achieved, the juice is drained off from the crushed grapes and continues to ferment.

• Vin d'une Nuit - This is French for "wine of a night." A simple short maceration approach, it means the juice is drained from the crushed grapes after a night. 

• Saignée - Derived from the French word that means "bled," this is method is used when the winemaker is trying to kill two birds with one stone. After a short maceration period, the pink juice will be drained out, leaving the remaining juice to continue macerating with a higher ratio of skin contact. The pink juice is then made into a Rosé. The remaining juice will have a deeper color and flavor by the time it is made into a still red wine. This is well-practiced in the States as the Rosé will be released early to bring cash flow to the winery while the remaining red wine continues to mature and age.

• Doble Pasta - This yummy-sounding approach comes from Spain although it is hardly intuitive. This is similar to Saignée in that a red wine and a pink wine will be produced. The difference is that two vats are used in this case. One vat is used to make a pink wine, and the skins will be transferred to the vat that is used to make the red.

My Verdict: There are different types of pink wine in the market. Pick something and try it. I tend to like a dry Grenache-based Rosé, hence my preference for a Provençal or Provence-style Rosé. And if your favorite small winery for red wine makes a nice Rosé, know that you are helping it by buying a bottle of the pink as well. Santé!